Continued fraction expansion of irrational numbers

In this section we use continued fractions for expansion of irrational numbers.

Theorem 1. Let $\displaystyle (x_n)_{n\geq 0}$ be a sequence of intergers with $\displaystyle x_i>0$ for every $\displaystyle i>0$ . Then the sequence $\displaystyle (p_n/q_n)_{n\geq 0}$ is a convergent sequence, and the its limit is an irrational number. We denote this limit by $\displaystyle [x_0;x_1,x_2,\ldots]$ .

Proof. From [1] we have $\displaystyle q_1\geq q_0=1>0$ and for all $\displaystyle n>1$ , $\displaystyle q_n=x_nq_{n-1}+q_{n-2},$ hence by induction on $\displaystyle n$ , $\displaystyle q_{n+1}>q_n$ for every $\displaystyle n\geq 1$ . Therefore $\displaystyle\lim_{n\to \infty}q_n=\infty$ .

By the Proposition 4 in [1], for all $\displaystyle n\geq 0$ ,

$\displaystyle \frac{p_n}{q_n}-\frac{p_{n+1}}{q_{n+1}}=\frac{(-1)^{n-1}}{q_nq_{n+1}},\quad\quad (1)$

hence $\displaystyle \frac{p_n}{q_n}-\frac{p_{n+2}}{q_{n+2}}=\frac{(-1)^{n-1}(q_{n+2}-q_n)}{q_nq_{n+1}q_{n+2}},\quad \forall n\geq 0.$ Therefore

$\displaystyle \frac{p_1}{q_1}>\frac{p_3}{q_3}>\frac{p_5}{q_5}>\ldots>\frac{p_0}{q_0}$

and

$\displaystyle \frac{p_0}{q_0}<\frac{p_2}{q_2}<\frac{p_4}{q_4}<\ldots<\frac{p_1}{q_1},$

hence $\displaystyle (p_{2n}/q_{2n})_{n\geq 0}$ and $\displaystyle (p_{2n+1}/q_{2n+1})_{n\geq 0}$ are convergent sequences. By (1) and $\displaystyle q_n\to\infty$ we have

$\displaystyle\lim_{n\to\infty}\frac{p_{2n}}{q_{2n}}=\lim_{n\to\infty}\frac{p_{2n+1}}{q_{2n+1}},$ so $\displaystyle (p_n/q_n)_{n\geq 0}$ is a convergent sequence.

Now we prove $\displaystyle \displaystyle \alpha:=\lim_{n\to\infty}\frac{p_n}{q_n}$ is an irrational number. We have

$\displaystyle \frac{p_{2m}}{q_{2m}}<\alpha<\frac{p_{2n+1}}{q_{2n+1}},\quad\forall m,n\geq 0.$

Thus, by (1),

$\displaystyle\left|\alpha-\frac{p_{2n}}{q_{2n}}\right|\leq \frac{1}{q_{2n}q_{2n+1}}<\frac{1}{q_{2n}^2},\quad\forall n\geq 1.$

By the Proposition 2 in [1], $\displaystyle p_{2n}$ and $\displaystyle q_{2n}$ are coprime integers for every $\displaystyle n\geq 1$ , hence there are infinite rational numbers $\displaystyle r/s$ , with $\displaystyle s>0$ and $\displaystyle (r,s)=1$ , such that

$\displaystyle \left|\alpha-\frac{r}{s}\right| <\frac{1}{s^2}.\quad\quad (2)$

Assume that $\displaystyle \alpha$ is rational and write $\displaystyle \alpha=p/q$ , where $\displaystyle p$ and $\displaystyle q>0$ are coprime integers. For all positive integers $\displaystyle s$ , at most two integers $\displaystyle r$ satisfy the equation (2), hence there are coprime integers $\displaystyle r_0$ and $\displaystyle s_0>q$ such that

$\displaystyle\left|\frac{p}{q}-\frac{r_0}{s_0}\right| <\frac{1}{s_0^2}.$

From the inequality we have $\displaystyle \mid ps_0-qr_0\mid <1$ , hence $\displaystyle ps_0=qr_0$ , a contradiction. Therefore $\displaystyle \alpha$ is an irrational number. $\Box$

Theorem 2. Let $\displaystyle \alpha$ be an irrational number. Then there is a unique sequence of integers $\displaystyle (a_n)_{n\geq 0}$ such that

(1) $\displaystyle a_i>0$ for every $\displaystyle i>0$ .

(2) $\displaystyle \alpha =[a_0;a_1,a_2,\ldots]$ .

Proof. In this proof, $\displaystyle [x]$ is the integer part of $\displaystyle x$ . Because $\displaystyle \alpha$ is an irrational number, we have $\displaystyle [\alpha]<\alpha<[\alpha]+1$ , hence there is a real number $\displaystyle u_1>1$ such that

$\displaystyle \alpha=[\alpha]+\frac{1}{u_1}.$

Because $\displaystyle \alpha$ is an irrational and $\displaystyle [\alpha]$ is an integer, $\displaystyle u_1$ is an irrational number. Hence there is an irrational number $\displaystyle u_2>1$ such that

$\displaystyle u_1=[u_1]+\frac{1}{u_2},$

and so on. Therefore we have real numbers $\displaystyle u_0:=\alpha$ , $u_1>1$ , $\displaystyle u_2>1$ , $\displaystyle \ldots$ such that $\displaystyle u_i$ is irrationals for every $\displaystyle i>0$ and

$\displaystyle u_k=[u_k]+\frac{1}{u_{k+1}},\quad\forall k\geq 0.$

We claim that $\displaystyle \alpha=[[u_0];[u_1],[u_2],\ldots]$ . Fix a $\displaystyle k>2$ . We have

$\displaystyle \alpha=[[u_0];[u_1],\ldots, [u_k],u_{k+1}].$

Hence, by Proposition 4 in [1],

$\displaystyle \left|\alpha-\frac{p_k}{q_k}\right|=\frac{1}{q_k(u_{k+1}q_{k}+q_{k-1})}<\frac{1}{q_k^2},$

so $\displaystyle \lim_{n\to\infty}\frac{p_n}{q_n}=\alpha$ . Now assume that

$\displaystyle \alpha =[a_0;a_1,a_2,\ldots]=[b_0;b_1,b_2,\ldots],$

where $\displaystyle (a_n)_{n\geq 0}$ and $\displaystyle (b_n)_{n\geq 0}$ are two sequences of integers such that $\displaystyle a_i>0$ and $\displaystyle b_i>0$ for every $\displaystyle i>0$ .

Because

$\displaystyle [a_0;a_1,a_2,\ldots,a_{n}]=a_0+\frac{1}{[a_1;a_2,\ldots,a_n]},\quad\forall n\geq 0,$

we have

$\displaystyle [a_0;a_1,a_2,\ldots]=a_0+\frac{1}{[a_1;a_2,\ldots]}.$

Hence $\displaystyle a_0=b_0=[\alpha]$ and $\displaystyle [a_1;a_2,a_3,\ldots] = [b_1;b_2,b_3,\ldots]$ . Similarly, $\displaystyle a_1=b_1$ and

$\displaystyle [a_2;a_3,a_4,\ldots] = [b_2;b_3,b_4,\ldots],$

and so on. Therefore $\displaystyle a_i=b_i$ for every $i$ . $\Box$

The equality in the theorem is called an expansion of $\displaystyle \alpha$ into a infinite continued fraction. In that expansion we will call $\displaystyle [a_0;a_1,a_2,\ldots,a_i]$ is the $\displaystyle i-$ th convergent of the continued fraction, or $\displaystyle i-$ th convergent of $\displaystyle \alpha$ . The theorem says that for every irrational number has an expansion into a infinite continued fraction, and this expansion is unique.

Example 1. $\displaystyle \sqrt{2}=[1;2,2,\ldots]$ .

Example 2. The golden ratio $\displaystyle\varphi:=\frac{1+\sqrt{5}}{2}=[1;1,1,\ldots]$ .

Example 3. $\displaystyle e=[2;1,2,1,1,4,1,1,6,1,1,8,\ldots]$ .

A sequence $\displaystyle (a_n)_{n\geq 0}$ is called eventually periodic if $\displaystyle a_{n+T}=a_n$ for some positive integer $\displaystyle T$ and sufficiently large $\displaystyle n$ . A real number is called quadratic irrational number, if there is a polynomial $\displaystyle P(x)$ is of degree two with rational coefficients such that $\displaystyle P(x)$ is an irreducible polynomial (see [3]) over the rational numbers and $\displaystyle \alpha$ is a root of $\displaystyle P(x)$ .

Theorem 3. Let $\displaystyle \alpha$ be an irrational number and $\displaystyle \alpha =[a_0;a_1,a_2,\ldots]$ is the expansion of $\displaystyle\alpha$ into a infinite continued fraction. Then $\displaystyle (a_n)_{n\geq 1}$ is eventually periodic if and only if $\displaystyle \alpha$ is a quadratic irrational.